This post is intended for students in general chemistry class.
To
assess whether or not an original
knowledge is scientific, one should look into the process of acquiring
it. This process is the scientific method.
Scientific method also provides a process in solving a problem. Thus, we
can define scientific method as a systematic process of inquiry for knowledge
or to solve a problem. It should be noted however, that science is broad. It
covers natural and social sciences. Natural sciences usually use the experiment
method while social sciences often include non-experimental methods to
solve problems.
The
systematic process may start with an existing problem, but often times the
problem may not be obvious that careful observation is required. Thus, the following are the typical steps of
the scientific method: (1)Observing,
(2) Stating the perceived problem,
(3)Gathering more data about the
problem to be able (4) to come up with an intelligent guess or formulate
hypotheses, then each hypothesis is proved or disproved by (5) an experiment. Out of the results/data, analysis and interpretation
are done so that (6) conclusions can be drawn. (7) Recommendations should be given in
order to inform, or improve the methods used, or for further studies, etc. The
process and results need to be reported so that others may know in a forum
called (8) publication. How can it
be scientific when nobody knows about it? To sum up, the typical steps of the scientific methods as
subheadings of a scientific report are: Observation, Problem of the Study, Literature
Review, Hypothesis, Experiment, Conclusion, Recommendation, and Publication. As
a process the following are the steps:
Observing
Identifying
and stating the Problem
Gathering
data or reviewing the literature
Formulating
hypothesis
Doing
Experiments
Concluding
Recommending
Reporting
or publishing
Observation
One
should not close his/her senses in the entire process of inquiry. We then say
that observation is always present from the start to the end. However, only
relevant observations are reported. These relevant observations maybe the ones that lead to the problem and
those that are required in the
experiment. Observation requires the use of the senses. Observations
that can be done with the use of the naked senses alone is called direct observation. Those that can be done with the aid of
instruments are called indirect
observation. Report of an observation is usually written in the passive voice
form. It is expected to be objective, unbiased
descriptions. In the experiment, it is required that the observations must be
of acceptable (usually high) degree of accuracy and precision.
Statement of
the Problem
Scientists or researchers
need to have something to focus with in the entire process of inquiry. This is
the need of stating the problem. The
problem is the main focus of the process of inquiry from the beginning to the
end. Statement of the problem can either
be in declarative form or in interrogative ( question form). Typically, there are two parts of the
statement of the problem: the general statement and the specific
statement. The general statement of the
problem is usually written in declarative form while the specific problems (sub-problems) are written
in question form. Question form is preferred to have focus, because a specific
question requires specific answer. Take
a look at the example below.
The study aimed to describe the growth of a (scientific
name of) plant inside and outside the
house. Specifically, it sought answer to
the following questions:
1.
Is there a difference in the growth of the plant inside and outside the
house in terms of
1.1
height of the plant;
1.2
width of the leaves;
1.3
color of the leaves; and
1.4
number of branches? and
2.
How long the plant live inside and outside the house?
……
Limitations
For
natural sciences re-searchable problems are those that can be tested empirically
and can be subjected to experiments. For
social sciences re-searchable problems cover those that can be represented by
indicators. These indicators are those that can be systematically studied using
either experimental or non-experimental methods. Examples of non-experimental
methods are survey methods and
observational methods.
Experimental methods are those that include manipulation of variables
and the subjects of the study are randomly assigned. Control of variables is also essential. Non-experimental methods
are those that do not involve manipulation of the variables.
Hypothesis
Hypothesis is a logical
solution to a problem which can be proved or disproved. This can be out of pure
reasons or reasons that come out of limited knowledge and observations of the
problem. Hypothesis is an educated or intelligent guess because it is logical. Hypothesis should not be confused with
theory. A theory is more than just a
simple logical solution. A theory is
a unified explanation or solution to a problem based on verified hypotheses (
hypotheses that have been proved or disproved). Thus, theory is based on
multiple sets of data that have been tested while hypothesis is based on
limited data. Example, on energy drinks and diabetes: “drinking energy drink causes diabetes” is a hypothesis
because diabetes could be caused by other factors. Hypothesis
deals only of the possibilities, hence has higher degree of uncertainty
compared to a theory
It
should be noted that to formulate a hypothesis, one should ask whether or not
it is verifiable. A hypothesis must be verifiable or testable.
Experimentation
Testing a hypothesis or a
theory involves the following steps: Designing the experiment; gathering data; processing
or analyzing, presenting and interpreting data. The written parts are materials, methods, results and discussion. Design of the experiment and gathering data fall under "Materials and Methods" while processing or analyzing, presenting and interpreting data fall under "Results and Discussion."
A
design is a plan. Designing an experiment includes plans on how to manipulate
and control variables, how data are to be gathered, processed, analyzed,
presented and be interpreted. The design advances from being a plan to a pattern once the experiment is done.
Gathering
Data
Gathering data can be done
prior to formulation of hypothesis or theory to be tested. More data from literature and previous
studies need to be gathered to advance the hypothesis into a theory and also to
know if the study needs to be continued. Well, there are times that problems have already
been answered by other studies so there is a need to either abort or modify the
problems in the study. Gathering data is
also done in the process of experimentation where data are needed to prove or
disprove the hypothesis or theory.
Conclusion
Conclusion should be an
answer to the problem and be supported by the data/results from experiment.
Conclusion can be a generalization or a result of synthesis, or a specific
answer as a result of analysis. In stating the conclusion, one should avoid
redundancy of words so that the phrase “therefore I conclude” should not be
written as it is under the subheading "Conclusion."Instead, be direct.
A
stand-alone conclusion is usually written when the report is very long as in
thesis or dissertations. Stand-alone
conclusion includes the major results that support the conclusion and
restatement of the problems that are answered. In this case, the readers are not burdened
of flipping back the pages for the
problems and major results.
Recommendation
A
recommendation of a specific study does not come out of the blue. They have
bases rooted in the study itself. This
maybe a recommendation on how the methods used can be improved, a recommendation
to study further those that were not included in the study but related, or
recommendation for use, and etc.
Students Activity
Time Frame: 3 hours ( 2 meetings)
Ask
the students to make a written report of
an observation or an account of an experience.
Out of the written observation, let them identify and write a statement of a
problem- choosing the one that has already a solution (They should not do an actual experiment for this activity). Then to continue making the report, going through the process of
scientific method to solve the problem. Give ample time for the student to do this. Ask the students to submit the written
report in the next class meeting.
Take note that this is just a classroom activity not an investigatory project. The main objective of this activity is just to assess whether or not the students can follow the steps of the scientific method. Novelty, high precision and accuracy are not to be expected. Also, the students in this activity are not expected to do an actual experiment, because this will take time and also not safe without teacher's supervision.
In
the next meeting, group the students and
ask them to present their individual outputs to the group. The group makes comments and suggestions for
improvement of the individual output. Then, the group decides whether to adopt and
improve one of the reports presented or make a new one for the group’s
output. The group output/report should be in power point presentation and a
group representative should be requested to present to the entire class for comments and suggestions.
From
what they learned in the group activity, ask the students to submit a revised
copy of their individual output.
Name:________________________________________________Score:________
Curr.
Program/Year Level:_________________________________ Date:_________
The
Scientific Method
Activity No. __
OUTCOME In this activity, the students are expected to
submit a well written report of solving a problem following through the steps
of the scientific method.
INSTRUCTION
Make
a written report of an observation or an account of an experience. Out of the written report, identify and write a statement of a problem
(choose a problem that has already a solution). Then continue making the report
going through the process of scientific method to solve the problem without
doing an actual experiment ( It is not safe to do an experiment in the absence
of your teacher). The written report must be submitted in the next class
meeting in the following sequence of subheadings.
Observation (recording observations)
Statement of the problem ( stating the
problem in interrogative form)
Literature Review (includes information
from literature with proper citations and references)
Method (includes list of materials
needed, written procedures, identification of variables,
presenting results, and analyzing and interpreting results
written in discussion form)
Conclusions ( can be direct or stand
alone)
Recommendations
Publication (present your output to the
class)
In
the next meeting, form into groups with
5 members. Present your individual outputs to the group for comments and
suggestions. In this case, the group decides whether to adopt and improve one
of the reports presented or make a new one for the group’s output. The group report should be in power point presentation and a
group representative should present to the entire class their output for
comments and suggestions.
From
what you learned in the group activity, each
student must submit a revised written copy of their individual output.
References and Suggested Readings:
Bretherton, Paul (2017 April 16). Science and the structure of an argument: How to Sort GoodInformation from Bad. [Web log post].
Science 2.0 Ion Publications. Retrieved from http://www.science20.com/dr_paul_bretherton/science_and_the_structure_of_an_argument_how_to_sort_good_information_from_bad-225032
Brown, L. and Holme, T. (2012). Chemistry for engineering students. New
Tech Park, Singapore: Cengage Learning Asia, pp
29-31.
Changizi, Mark ( 2010 August 3). Can science be justified?. [Web log
post]. Science 2.0 Ion Publications.Retrieved fromhttp://www.science20.com/mark_changizi/can_science_be_justified
Creswell,
John ( 2009). Research design (3rd
Ed.). Perkin St. Far Ease Square,
Singapore: SAGE Publications Asia-Pacific
